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The Missing Link:

Using Class Notes to Document Advances in Late-Nineteenth-Century Ballet Technique

Norma Sue Fisher-Stitt (York, Ontario)

Documentation et Art de l'Acteur
Records and Images of the Art of the Performer

18ème Congrès International, Stockholm 3-7 septembre1990
18th International Congress, Stockholm 3-7 September 1990
Editor: Barbro Stribolt (Drottningholms Teatermuseum). Stockholm: 1992, p. 43-48

Ballet technique is never permanently set, it constantly evolves to meet the changing needs of choreographers and dancers. During the nineteenth century, significant alterations were introduced in the areas of vocabulary and execution. In the first half of the century, the Romantic Era gave rise to increased interest and emphasis on the use of les pointes. In the latter half of the century, virtuosity was paramount, including multiple turns on pointe, made possible by "spotting" with the head. ¹
These technical advances, seen on the stage, were not achieved spontaneously through chance. Rather, classroom exercises developed concurrently, enabling dancers to meet the escalating demands placed on them by choreographers and audiences. Classroom notes from the nineteenth century are vital in determining when specific exercises were introduced, deleted or altered. While gaps still exist, it is possible to begin this process of tracing the development of technique through currently available materials. Within this paper, I will refer to three sources of information:

Carlo Blasis (c. 1797-1878), Enrico Cecchetti (1850-1928) and Pierina Legnani (1863-1923). Carlo Blasis, the Italian dancer and teacher, wrote several dance treatises and books. In his Traité élémentaire, théorique et pratique de l'art de la danse, published in 1820, ² and in The Code of Terpsichore, published in 1828,³
Blasis lists the exercises comprising the daily lesson. He also provides guidance on the execution of the "First Exercises," the equivalent of today's barre work. Enrico Cecchetti, another Italian dancer and teacher, hand-wrote the Manuel des exercises de danse théâtrale for his class of senior girls at the Imperial Ballet School in St Petersburg in 1894. ⁴ Intended for a specific class, not the general public, this manual provides more detailed information than that found in the Blasis works. Pierina Legnani, the Italian ballerina famous for her execution of thirty-two fouettés, kept notes of her classes while she was a pupil at La Scala in Milan in the 1880's. Through her, we have access to the classes taught by Cesare Coppini.⁵ By comparing the information contained in these three nineteenth-century sources, a better understanding of the expansion of class vocabulary can be attained.

Blasis' 1820 Traité was intended to be of use primarily to those who aspired to perform, but it focuses on broad principles of movement. Beginning with General Instructions, subsequent chapters are devoted to The Legs, The Arms, Principal Positions, Enchaînements, Entrechats and Pirouettes. Class order appears as a footnote only. No details are provided, making it impossible to ascertain whether daily variation was the exception or the norm.
Each exercise may have had several versions, for all the exercises are listed in plural, e.g. les temps de courante. Only the "First Exercises" are fully explained, and this is for the benefit of the general public. Blasis clearly states that any dance student reading his manual would already have a thourough knowledge of these elements. The 1828 Code of Terpsichore is a more ambitious volume than the Traité. Divided into six sections, it examines the historical, theoretical and practical aspects of both theatrical and social dance. The second section, "Theory of Theatrical Dancing", is a translation of the 1820 Traité; with minor modifications. The content of the lesson is almost identical in both works.

Enrico Cecchetti first learned the rudiments of ballet technique from his father who had studied with Blasis. He was later sent to Florence to study under Giovanni Lepri, another former Blasis pupil. After performing throughout Europe, Cecchetti went to Russia in 1887 and began to teach at the Imperial School in St. Petersburg 1892. When he wrote the Manuel in 1894, his intention was that this guide would be used by his students following graduation. He feared that once they left the school, they would work less diligently, and forget all the principles of movement. Cecchetti mentions that only the most useful exercises are included, but no clue is given as to how many others existed. He does explain the organization of his classes, in which a particular technical focus is assigned to each day of the week.⁶

The Cecchetti class material is generally perceived and promoted as being a direct descendant of the teachings of Blasis. The Blasis class undoubtedly supplies the foundation upon which the Cecchetti class is based, but more is learned by examining the difference between the two, than by emphasizing the similarities.

What is found when comparing the Blasis and Cecchetti lessons? The daily class format remained essentially the same throughout the century: barre work being repeated in the centre, followed by adagio and then allegro sequences. Within this basic structure, significant changes in order, terminology and material are found, particularly in the barre exercises. As seen in Figure One, both gentlemen begin the barre with pliés, but their instructions on proper execution differ. Blasis informs his reader that the heels remain on the floor. Cecchetti reminds his pupils to lift their heels as little as possible, indicating that grands pliés were introduced sometime between 1828 and 1894.

The second exercise listed by Blasis is grands battements,⁷ the leg lifting to hip level. Cecchetti's second exercise is battements tendus (à terre) - lents, the equivalent of Blasis' third exercise, petits battements. Battements tendus mark a change both in order and in terminology. The order of barre work continues to vary, ⁸ but the terminology for this exercise today remains battements tendus.
In the Cecchetti class, battements dégagés (demi position) - vifs, follow battements tendus. Not found in the Blasis class, they are described as being done at twice the speed of battements tendus, with the foot releasing from the floor. Grands battements follow, completing a logical progression of gradually increasing leg extensions.

Ronds de jambe à terre are listed next by both teachers, Blasis incorporating ronds de jambe en l'air either within the same exercise, or immediately following. Cecchetti inserts two other exercises between the two types of ronds de jambe. The first of these is another new exercise, battements frappés. Cecchetti describes them as being similar to battements dégagés, but with the working foot striking the supporting leg at the ankle instead of closing into fifth position.

The Blasis barre finishes with petits battements sur le cou de pied. Four additional exercises complete Cecchetti's barre work: ronds de jambe en l'air, grands battements en crois, échappés sur les pointes and relevés sur la pointe with one foot positioned at the ankle. The final two exercises are specifically oriented to Cecchetti's 1894 class of girls. In the 1922 Cecchetti Manual,⁹ they are replaced by battements relevés, which can be executed by males or females.

Aside from the relevés and échappés, two exercises listed by Cecchetti are not included in the Blasis class: battements dégagés and battements frappés. Both exercises share a common goal, to develop strong yet supple insteps. In the 1922 Cecchetti Manual, battements dégagés are said to "render the insteps supple, to strengthen the toes, and to strengthen and render elastic the muscles so that you may attain a good elevation."¹⁰ Similarly, battements frappés are done to "strengthen the insteps, to strengthen the toes."¹¹ Both are presented as aids to elevation, developing flexibility and strength in the toes and unsteps.

Surprisingly, no mention is made of the link between these two exercises and pointe work. Surely, the increased demands placed on the female foot would have contributed to, if not necessitated, the development of such exercises. Dancers had long been airborne at the time of Blasis' publications; use of les pointes sharply escalated in the years between the Blasis and Cecchetti writings. As technical demands alter, so must class content. These particular exercises mark a logical and necessary addition to class vocabulary.

Through examination of the class notes, it becomes apparent that technical content, or what was taught, was not the only area of change. How ballet was taught, the teaching methodology, also underwent transition. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the amount of material covered each week was greatly expanded by teachers changing the exercises from day to day. So far, no evidence suggests that Blasis taught in this fashion. It is unlikely that his students constantly executed the same combinations, but there is no indication of daily variation by specific exercises being assigned to specific days. In contrast, Cecchetti varied the adage and allegro sections of his class each day, repeating the cycle weekly. Only the barre and centre practice remained the same each day.
It seems most likely that Cecchetti was exposed to classes using this daily format while he was performing at La Scala between 1884 and 1887. At that time, Caterina Beretta and Cesare Coppini were teaching in Milan and both arranged their exercises in a Monday through Saturday format. Cecchetti's opinion of Beretta is not documented, but it is evident that Coppini's teaching made a lasting impression. In his 1894 Manuel, Cecchetti refers to Coppini as "mon célèbre maître."¹² In this same manual, Cecchetti makes no mention of Lepri, the Blasis pupil from whom he received his early training. Cecchetti's regard for Coppini may have been the impetus behind his decision to build his own teaching method based on daily variation and weekly repetition.

Figure Two plots the daily adages of Blasis against the Monday and Tuesday adages of Coppini and Cecchetti, illustrating how the material within one section of class was expanded. The number in front of each exercise indicates its placement in the class order. Exercises perceived to be of similar intent have been placed adjacent to one another.
It is, of course, possible that Blasis omitted some of these adages each day. Even so, his approach differed in that the selection was not recorded in a set rotational pattern. Coppini retained most of the Blasis adages, but spread out the material by assigning fewer each day. The principal difference between Blasis and Cecchetti lies in the variety of ways in which the elements are presented.
Taking the Blasis material, Cecchetti expanded it to repeat in another form several times during the week. The Blasis Grands Rond-de-Jambes appear in Cecchetti's Monday class as Grands Rond de Jambes en dehors et en dedans, and on Tuesday as Grands Rond de Jambe Developpés. Changes in teaching philosophy contributed to the expansion of class material. In the early nineteenth century, the preference was for unvarying class order and content. The trend toward greater variety emerged in the latter half of the century. While Coppini, Beretta and Cecchetti taught a daily class over a weekly cycle, Christian Johanson in St. Petersburg took the process a step further. Changing his exercises daily, he claimed that in the course of his lengthy career, he never repeated a combination. ¹³

The class notes used in this paper provide considerable information on the development of ballet technique, but many questions remain. More information is needed on the classes taught throughout Europe and in Russia during the nineteenth century.
Additional class notes kept by students or teachers may further narrow the time period in which new exercises appeared or significant changes in execution were introduced. Unfortunately, the role of the teacher is often overshadowed by the more accessible role of the performer or choreographer. The importance of classroom notes is undervalued, even by teachers themselves. The studio and the stage are intimately linked, and our failure to preserve today's teachings will handicap future generations of researchers. Technical advances seen on the stage must be supported by exercises in the studio. Examination of class notes can reveal changing class content, the introduction or deletion of material, class format, length of the lesson, order of the exercises and innovation in teaching philosophy. Only through the preservation and investigation of class notes is it possible to attain a balanced and complete understanding of dance history.

Notes

¹ Believed to have been developed by the Italians, "spotting" involves beginning a turn with the body while leaving the head behind. The head then quickly whips around to the front, arriving before the body completes the turn. Enabling the eyes to focus, "spotting" assists the execution of multiple turns by counteracting dizziness. (back)
² Carlo Blasis.Traité élémentaire, théorique et pratique de l'art de la danse (Milan: Chez Joseph Beati et Antoine Tenenti, 1820). (back)
³ Carlo Blasis, The Code of Terpsichore, trans. R. Barton, 2nd ed. (London, 1828; rpt. New York: Dance Horizons, 1976). (back)
⁴ Enrico Cecchetti, Manuel des exercises de danse héâtrale (St Petersburg: n.p., 1894). (back)
⁵ Some of Legnani's class notes are included in Peggy van Praagh and Peter Brinson, The Choreographic Art (New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1963). (back)
⁶ The allegro section of class most clearly illustrates Cecchetti's teaching approach, each day having its own focus. The week begins with assemblés on Monday, then proceed a with petits battements on Tuesday, ronds de jambe on Wednesday, jetés on Thursday, beats and pointe work on Friday, finishing on Saturday with fouettés sautés and additional pointe work. (back)
⁷ Within the body of the paper and the figures, all exercises are written as originally recorded by Blasis, Cecchetti or Legnani, accounting for the inconsistencies in spelling. (back)
⁸ By 1922, when he was teaching in London, Cecchetti had returned to assigning grands battements immediately after pliés, the same order documented by Blasis. It is possible that during his years in Russia, Cecchetti placed grands battements later in the barre to accomodate the harsher Russian climate and the wishes of his employers. Today, grands battements are rarely executed after pliés, one exception being Cecchetti Syllabus work. (back)
⁹ Cyril W. Beaumont and Stanislas Idzikowsky, A Manual of the Theory and Practice of Classical Theatrical Dancing (Méthode Cecchetti) (London: C.W. Beaumont, 1922). (back)
¹⁰ Beaumont and Idzikowsky, Manual, p. 34. (back)
¹¹ Beaumont and Idzikowsky, Manual, p. 34. (back)
¹² Cecchetti, Manuel, p. 16. (back)
¹³ Not everyone supported the trend away from daily repetition. Leopold Adice, author of Théorie de la gymnastique de la danse théâtrale (Paris: Chaix,1859), contended that the abandonment of highly structured teaching methods was responsible for declining standards at the Paris Opéra. Comments made by Adice indicate that by 1859, teachers at the Opéra were changing their class content daily. Admitting that this method was popular with the students, Adice maintained that it had failed to produce strong dancers. He advocated returning to the type of class taught by Blasis. (back)

Figure 1. Blasis and Cecchetti Barre Exercises

Figure 2. Blasis, Coppini and Cecchetti - Monday and Tuesday Adage

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